On language and being human

Maggie Ciskanik MS, MSc

“The spark jumped, language was born, the brain flowered with words, and man became man.” Walker Percy, The Message in the Bottle 

The classification of modern human beings as “Homo sapiens” by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 highlighted the distinction of the kind of intelligence found in humans compared to the other animals. In the story of man’s coming of age, speech and language seem to have played a significant role. Just as the emergence of new technologies has required a re-examination of the meaning of intelligence, the recent emergence of Large Language Models and Generative AI calls for a fresh look at the nature of human language and its relationship to higher cognitive functions.

Let’s look to the evolution of Homo sapiens and the nature of language for clues.

Language and the Physical Evolution of Homo Sapiens 

According to Dr. Philip Lieberman, a professor of cognitive and linguistic science at Brown University:

The first time we see human skulls -- fossils -- that have everything in place is about 50,000 years ago where the neck is long enough, the mouth is short enough, that they could have had a vocal tract like us." (NPR Interview: From Grunting to Gabbing: Why Humans Can Talk)

These anatomical structures distinguished Homo sapiens from the other hominids, and they made human speech possible. There are energetic and ongoing discussions among linguists and biologists trying to elucidate possible mechanisms for these changes. At its most basic level, speech is a somewhat arbitrary arrangement of sounds (signs) that point to something. Such a skill as a means of conveying information has obvious advantages over hand gestures. But what other advantages did such a skill give humans? In evolutionary theory, language development is considered a necessary adaptation for increased social interactions that promote an exchange of information (how to make this tool, where to hunt for bison, etc.) which provides advantages for survival.

But speech (the spoken word) appears to be only one aspect of language.

Language is a tool for “communication” to be sure, but words are more than sounds associated with external objects. They are meant to convey meaning and understanding as well.

https://www.academia.edu/42147858/Walker_Percy_Phenomenology_and_the_Mystery_of_Language?email_work_card=view-paper

Lieberman makes this observation in his book Eve Spoke:

We know, so far as science "knows" anything, that speech is a central aspect of human language…. The complex ballet constantly performed by the muscles of our speech anatomy--our lips, tongue, vocal cords, and so on--is choreographed by specialized brain mechanisms that also appear to make complex human thought possible. [emphasis added]

Language is Not Reducible to Signs

According to Noam Chomsky, the “father” of linguistics, language is more than the acquisition of the correct “signs” for an object, more than the mechanics of speech. Words are the foundation, of course, but their correct use often requires broader distinctions. To explain, Dr. Chomsky claims that we individuate objects not only by their physical properties, but by their use and even design. (For example, a house and a library may look alike but are used for different purposes and therefore are signified by different words.) So object recognition is insufficient to get from speech to human concepts captured by language.

Words (signs/symbols) for various objects and concepts vary from one language to the other, but it seems that all children acquire the basics of word use and sentence structure without much effort. Chomsky believes this points to a “universal grammar” embedded in each language and in human neural architecture. 

 

A recent analysis of the evolution of language (April 2025) creates a context for the type of development posited by Chomsky over 40 years ago. According to the authors, the biological shifts emerged first, leading to changes in brain structure creating the neural networks associated with language processing.  From these networks emerged advanced cognitive abilities (such as mental time travel), leading to higher order functions, such as reasoning and problem solving. 

These language networks enabled the development of a shared system of symbols that goes beyond the simple use of words as signs for objects:

“Words act as cognitive tools that help organize and structure thoughts, making complex reasoning more manageable…. language not only facilitates abstract thinking and cognitive regulation but also shapes how we understand and interact with the world.”

So the development of language networks is closely tied to the human capacities described in the literature as “higher cognitive functions.” 

What Can Helen Keller Teach Us About Language?

Which brings us to the story of Helen Keller. That a child who lost both sight and hearing at the tender age of 19 months could acquire language is a fact that should awaken our curiosity. Without visual or auditory input, Helen had to learn to identify objects in the environment by touch–and through her blind tutor Anne Sullivan–learned the sequence of signs (letters) associated with that object. She could ask for objects like “doll,” “water,” and “cake” readily. But then one day, when she was 8 years old, Helen had a dramatic experience. They came across someone drawing water at the well-house, and Anne Sullivan put Helen’s hand under the spout:

“As the cool stream gushed over one hand, she spelled into the other the word water, first slowly then rapidly. I stood still, my whole attention fixed upon the motion of her fingers. Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of something forgotten-a thrill of returning thought; and somehow the mystery of language was revealed to me. I knew then that "w-a-t-e-r" meant the wonderful cool something that was flowing over my hand. That living word awakened my soul…I left the well-house eager to learn. Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a new thought. As we returned to the house every object which I touched seemed to quiver with life.That was because I saw everything with the strange, new sight that had come to me.” (The Message in the Bottle, quoted p. 35. Emphasis added)

Water was no longer just the actual water flowing over her hand but referred to water anywhere and everywhere it existed. Hence her striking discovery that “Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a new thought.” [emphasis added] For the first time, Helen recognized  “w-a-t-e-r” as a concept–a symbol and not just a sign.

 Helen observed the transformative impact of this discovery:

Gradually from naming an object we advance step by step until we have traversed the vast distance between our first stammered syllable and the sweep of thought in a line of Shakespeare. (Helen Keller, The Story of My Life)

Helen Keller’s experience challenges the behaviorist view that human language originated solely as linear sequences of stimulus-response. Helen learned the signs for things well enough, with positive reinforcement occurring each time she used the correct sequence of letters. If we look back at Helen Keller’s description of how she acquired language, however, she described an internal mechanism by which she suddenly recognized that a sequence of letters-a sign-for a specific object had an associated concept, a “thought.” Language is more than sounds for objects, more than using “words” to name objects correctly. These signs mean something. Even without the spoken word, the “written” word for Helen enabled her to grasp the meaning of objects and abstract thought!

Helen’s experience may corroborate the existence of Chomsky’s “universal grammar” supported by genetically encoded brain circuits. It may point to something not yet understood about human language. Even so the philosophical and biological debates will continue as scientists seek to unravel the mechanisms that brought about the amazing gift of human language. Or as Carsten Knop, editor of the German newspaper FAZ, remarked:

The purpose of words is to live out relationship. To be endowed with language is not just about emitting grunts. We are able to confide in one another; we can establish connections and networks; we can enthuse each other, create shared knowledge and elevate ourselves in its light.

For further reading of Helen Keller’s exploration of a world hidden from sight and hearing, read her moving description of “listening” to the New York Orchestra’s performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. It is profound.